Apartheid was to be the basic ideological and practical foundation of Afrikaner politics for the next quarter of a century. Until 1956 women were for the most part excluded from these pass requirements, as attempts to introduce pass laws for women were met with fierce resistance. In this context, the absence of capitalization signifies Muhammad’s interpretation of alternative holocausts as being secondary and forgotten next to the Jewish Holocaust. Botha's government stopped short of substantial reforms, such as lifting the ban on the ANC, PAC and SACP and other liberation organisations, releasing political prisoners, or repealing the foundation laws of grand apartheid. It was not until the elections of 1948 that the word apartheid became common in South African politics. Within South Africa, meanwhile, vigorous police action and strict enforcement of security legislation resulted in hundreds of arrests and bans, and an effective end to the African National Congress' sabotage campaign. Although a high-profile compensation claim against these companies was thrown out of court in 2004,[161] the US Supreme Court in May 2008 upheld an appeal court ruling allowing another lawsuit that seeks damages of more than US$400 billion from major international companies which are accused of aiding South Africa's apartheid system. Many were descended from people brought to South Africa from other parts of the world, such as India, Sri Lanka, Madagascar and China as slaves and indentured workers. The Bantu Investment Corporation Act of 1959 set up a mechanism to transfer capital to the homelands to create employment there. In a nutshell, this dilemma can be defined as follows: without the presence of the capital letter to emphasize its presence and meaning, how are we to interpret and respond to the word we call “apartheid”? In the 1980s, anti-apartheid movements in the United States and Europe were gaining support for boycotts against South Africa, for the withdrawal of US companies from South Africa, and for release of imprisoned Nelson Mandela. Soon afterwards, Prime Minister Hendrik Verwoerd announced a referendum on whether the country should become a republic. [140] It did not rebuff South Africa entirely, though, adopting an appeasing manner towards the apartheid government, and even recognizing its autonomy. System of racial segregation in South Africa and South West Africa (Namibia) from 1948-91, This article is about apartheid in South Africa. Protests against certain tours brought about the cancellation of a number of other visits, including that of an England rugby team touring South Africa in 1969/70. (2004). U.S. government justification for supporting the Apartheid regime publicly given as a belief in "free trade" and the perception of the right-wing South African government as a bastion against Marxist forces in Southern Africa, for example, by the military intervention by the South African government in the Mozambican Civil War in support of right-wing insurgents fighting to topple the government. Meanwhile, about 200,000 members of the National Union of Mineworkers commenced the longest strike (three weeks) in South African history. In 1910, the Union of South Africa was created as a self-governing dominion, which continued the legislative programme: the South Africa Act (1910) enfranchised white people, giving them complete political control over all other racial groups while removing the right of black people to sit in parliament,[35] the Native Land Act (1913) prevented blacks, except those in the Cape, from buying land outside "reserves",[35] the Natives in Urban Areas Bill (1918) was designed to force black people into "locations",[36] the Urban Areas Act (1923) introduced residential segregation and provided cheap labour for industry led by white people, the Colour Bar Act (1926) prevented black mine workers from practising skilled trades, the Native Administration Act (1927) made the British Crown, rather than paramount chiefs, the supreme head over all African affairs,[37][better source needed] the Native Land and Trust Act (1936) complemented the 1913 Native Land Act and, in the same year, the Representation of Natives Act removed previous black voters from the Cape voters' roll and allowed them to elect three whites to Parliament. Mandela's reply was read in public by his daughter Zinzi – his first words distributed publicly since his sentence to prison 21 years earlier. Economic and social discrimination because of gender is sometimes referred to as gender apartheid. British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan's "Wind of Change" speech left the British faction feeling that the United Kingdom had abandoned them. Democratization and Electrification in Post-Apartheid South Africa", "Remembering Verwoerd – OPINION | Politicsweb", "Afrikaner domination died with Verwoerd 50 years ago", http://kora.matrix.msu.edu/files/50/304/32-130-E84-84-al.sff.document.af000020.pdf, "From the Western Areas to Soweto: forced removals", Health Sector Strategic Framework 1999–2004 – Background, Dictionary of South African English on historical principles, "Forum: Watching the 'race' detectives – The results of South Africa's race classification laws", "Women's Charter, 17 April 1954 Johannesburg", "South African women under apartheid: Employment rights with particular focus on domestic service and forms of resistance to promote change", "In South Africa, Chinese is the New Black", "From second-class citizen to 'Honorary White': changing state views of Chinese in South Africa", "Albinos in the Laager – Being Lebanese in South Africa", "WINDS – South Africa Apartheid Defined by Amercian [, "Treatment of homosexuality during apartheid", "Why South Africa's Television is only Twenty Years Old: Debating Civilisation, 1958–1969", "Summary of the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act", Pope Attacks Apartheid in Speech at U.N. Court, "The ANC's Diplomacy and International Relations", The 1981 Springbok rugby tour – A country divided, "Margaret Court: astounding champion who found God and lost the respect of a nation", https://vhscollector.com/sites/default/files/vhs/domino-principal-vhs-5-29047.jpg, ALEC's "Institutional Corruption", From Backing Apartheid to Assault on Clean Energy, Public Sector, "Compensation case against South African miners thrown out", "Brothers in Arms – Israel's secret pact with Pretoria", "Revealed: how Israel offered to sell South Africa nuclear weapons", "The memos and minutes that confirm Israel's nuclear stockpile", "Israel Denies It Offered South Africa Warheads", "The Banquo's Ghost of Israeli Foreign Policy", "Political executions in South Africa by the apartheid government 1961 – 1989", Volume Five – Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa Report, "South African envoy: Mandela begged Nigeria for money to fight apartheid", "S. Africa Approves Charter; White-Led Parliament Votes for Constitution Canceling Its Powers", "Turning Points in History Book 6: Negotiation, Transition and Freedom", "Dawn of liberation – 1994 South African election", "New cut-off date opens amnesty doors for pre-election bombers", "Spotlight Three: South Africa's 1994 Elections", South Africa apartheid party votes to dissolve, "Mr Adrian Vlok extends gesture of penance to Rev Frank Chikane, Director-General in the Presidency", Volume Five Chapter Six – Findings and Conclusions, "End of Apartheid in South Africa? As we learned during  childhood, when we encountered language and its intricacies for its first time, a capital letter carries with it a certain sense of personal, social and political prestige. The following individuals, who had previously supported apartheid, made public apologies: The South African experience has given rise to the term "apartheid" being used in a number of contexts other than the South African system of racial segregation. [133] Other actions taken by the United Nations General Assembly include the request for all nations and organisations, “to suspend cultural, educational, sporting and other exchanges with the racist regime and with organisations or institutions in South Africa which practice apartheid”. (legalisation of gambling could lead to growth of casinos, lotteries)(Brief Article), Apartheid mythology and symbolism. Many Black and Coloured women worked as agricultural or domestic workers, but wages were extremely low, if existent. After the arrival of television in South Africa in 1975, the British Actors Union, Equity, boycotted the service, and no British programme concerning its associates could be sold to South Africa. / the fight against the apartheid.-"the products of Apartheid" / the fight against Apartheid. The Anti-Apartheid Movement persisted in its campaign for South Africa's exclusion, and the IOC acceded in barring the country from the 1964 Olympic Games. Print. It also abolished the seats of white representatives of black South Africans and removed from the rolls the few blacks still qualified to vote. [168] The apartheid government perceived itself as being locked in a proxy struggle with the Warsaw Pact and by implication, armed wings of black nationalist forces such as Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) and the People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN), which often received Soviet arms and training. The signboard typist (albeit subconsciously) seemed to keep reinserting “Apartheid” as opposed to “apartheid” in order to draw attention to the purpose and power it commands in the capitalized form. A third faction, which included Hendrik Verwoerd, sympathised with the purists, but allowed for the use of black labour, while implementing the purist goal of vertical separation. This signature act of torture and murder was embraced by the ANC and its leaders. In 1966, he met the heads of the neighbouring states of Lesotho, Swaziland and Botswana. Representation of Natives Act (1936) Parliamentary opposition was galvanised by Helen Suzman, Colin Eglin and Harry Schwarz, who formed the Progressive Federal Party. 252 of the 400 seats went to members of the African National Congress. 1–47 (p. [15] The Population Registration Act, 1950 classified all South Africans into one of four racial groups based on appearance, known ancestry, socioeconomic status, and cultural lifestyle: "Black", "White", "Coloureds", and "Indian", the last two of which included several sub-classifications. This unity process accelerated in the late 1980s and led to the creation, in December 1991, of an incorporated South African Football Association. He was jailed for advocating the violent overthrow of the apartheid system. [15] Between 1960 and 1983, 3.5 million black Africans were removed from their homes and forced into segregated neighbourhoods as a result of apartheid legislation, in some of the largest mass evictions in modern history. Lebanese immigration to South Africa was chiefly Christian, and the group was originally classified as non-white; however, a court case in 1913 ruled that because Lebanese and Syrians originated from the Canaan region (the birthplace of Christianity and Judaism), they could not be discriminated against by race laws which targeted non-believers, and thus, were classified as white. Detention without trial became a common feature of the government's reaction to growing civil unrest and by 1988, 30,000 people had been detained. Pretoria: Litera. [43] Its traditional bases of support not only took mutually exclusive positions, but found themselves increasingly at odds with each other. [9][10] Apartheid was adopted as a formal policy by the South African government after the ascension of the National Party (NP) during the 1948 general elections. iii. 49 of 1828 decreed that prospective black immigrants were to be granted passes for the sole purpose of seeking work. [225] He was succeeded as president later that year by F. W. de Klerk. Native Building Workers Act (1951) Botha, became increasingly preoccupied with security. Yet, as much as I want to defy grammatical conventions and restore its prominence, I’m pulled back by the confines of academic discourse which forces me to type “apartheid” once more. It was later proven that the government manipulated the situation by supporting one side or the other whenever it suited them. Severe censorship of the press became a dominant tactic in the government's strategy and television cameras were banned from entering such areas. Throughout the existence of the independent Bantustans, South Africa remained the only country to recognise their independence. [205], External Western influence, arising from European experiences in colonisation, may be seen as a factor which greatly influenced political attitudes and ideology. [12] With the rapid growth and industrialisation of the British Cape Colony, racial policies and laws which had previously been relatively relaxed became increasingly rigid, discriminating specifically against black Africans, in the last decade of the 19th century. [62], In 1955 the Strijdom government increased the number of judges in the Appeal Court from five to 11, and appointed pro-Nationalist judges to fill the new places. [13] The policies of the Boer Republics were also racially exclusive; for instance, the Transvaal's constitution barred black African and Coloured participation in church and state. The new young leaders proposed that white authority could only be overthrown through mass campaigns. Once a homeland was granted its nominal independence, its designated citizens had their South African citizenship revoked and replaced with citizenship in their homeland. The Tomlinson Commission of 1954 justified apartheid and the homeland system, but stated that additional land ought to be given to the homelands, a recommendation that was not carried out.[77]. Black journalists for the Johannesburg Drum magazine were the first to give the issue public exposure, with an intrepid special issue in 1955 that asked, "Why shouldn't our blacks be allowed in the SA team? [60] The government then introduced the High Court of Parliament Bill (1952), which gave Parliament the power to overrule decisions of the court. In 1978, Nigeria boycotted the Commonwealth Games because New Zealand's sporting contacts with the South African government were not considered to be in accordance with the 1977 Gleneagles Agreement. D'Oliveira was eventually included in the team as the first substitute, but the tour was cancelled. There were fears that the change of power would be violent. In the Cape Colony, which previously had a liberal and multi-racial constitution and a system of franchise open to men of all races, the Franchise and Ballot Act of 1892 raised the property franchise qualification and added an educational element, disenfranchising a disproportionate number of the Cape's non-white voters,[30] and the Glen Grey Act of 1894 instigated by the government of Prime Minister Cecil John Rhodes limited the amount of land Africans could hold. He had an unpublicised meeting with Botha. Although Verwoerd tried to bond these different blocs, the subsequent voting illustrated only a minor swell of support,[75] indicating that a great many English speakers remained apathetic and that Verwoerd had not succeeded in uniting the white population. The newly founded United Nations Special Committee Against Apartheid, scripted and passed Resolution 181 on August 7, 1963, which called upon all states to cease the sale and shipment of all ammunition and military vehicles to South Africa. The district attorney still hasn't decided whether to charge the suspect with a capital offense or a lesser crime, such as manslaughter. A 2007 book by Harriet A. Washington on the history of medical experimentation on African Americans is entitled Medical Apartheid. Apartheid was dismantled in a series of negotiations from 1990–91, culminating in a transitional period which resulted in the country's 1994 general election, the first in South Africa held with universal suffrage. Under apartheid, 13 percent of the land was reserved for black homelands, a small amount relative to its total population, and generally in economically unproductive areas of the country. In 1978, the National Party Defence Minister, Pieter Willem Botha, became Prime Minister. [citation needed], The population was classified into four groups: African, White, Indian and Coloured (capitalised to denote their legal definitions in South African law). The Senate Act was contested in the Supreme Court, but the recently enlarged Appeal Court, packed with government-supporting judges, upheld the act, and also the Act to remove Coloured voters.[67]. By 1981, under apartheid government, 11 new universities were built: seven for Blacks, one for Coloreds, one for Indians, one for Afrikaans and one dual-language medium Afrikaans and English. The Bantu Authorities Act of 1951 created separate government structures for blacks and whites and was the first piece of legislation to support the government's plan of separate development in the bantustans. [190][191], During the 1980s the government, led by P.W. It became a criminal offence to threaten someone verbally or possess documents that the government perceived to be threatening, to advise anyone to stay away from work or to oppose the government, and to disclose the name of anyone arrested under the State of Emergency until the government released that name, with up to ten years' imprisonment for these offences. On 6 September 1966, Verwoerd was fatally stabbed at Parliament House by parliamentary messenger Dimitri Tsafendas. From 1964 onwards, the US and the UK discontinued their arms trade with South Africa. [14], The first apartheid law was the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act, 1949, followed closely by the Immorality Amendment Act of 1950, which made it illegal for most South African citizens to marry or pursue sexual relationships across racial lines. If the previous sentence ends with a question mark or exclamation mark, you should also use a capital letter, ? He was not prepared to dismantle apartheid, but he did try to redress South Africa's isolation and to revitalise the country's global reputation, even those with Black majority rule in Africa. 40,000 people annually were subjected to whipping as a form of punishment. In particular, it expressed disquiet that "no international observers had been allowed to be present at the crucial stage of the count when party representatives negotiated over disputed ballots." Baroness Young – Minister of State, Foreign and Commonwealth Office (4 July 1986). [15] The government announced that relocated persons would lose their South African citizenship as they were absorbed into the bantustans. Its primary objectives were to eradicate colonialism and improve social, political and economic situations in Africa. "[174], As a result of "Total Strategy", South African society became increasingly militarised. Artists were requested not to present or let their works be hosted in South Africa. CODESA adopted a Declaration of Intent and committed itself to an "undivided South Africa". Native Labour (Settlement of Disputes) Act (1953) Interracial contact in sport was frowned upon, but there were no segregatory sports laws. Your letters: There is no apartheid in Israel. In 1949, the youth wing of the African National Congress (ANC) took control of the organisation and started advocating a radical black nationalist programme. [153] In addressing the hundreds of anti-apartheid sympathisers as well as leaders and officials from the ANC and the Anti-Apartheid Movement such as Oliver Tambo, Palme declared: "Apartheid cannot be reformed; it has to be eliminated. Despite these two instances where the term “holocaust” enters Holocaust discourse, we predominantly understand and engage with this term in its capitalized modality. [72] The more conservative English speakers supported Verwoerd;[73] others were troubled by the severing of ties with the UK and remained loyal to the Crown. In the early hours, heavily armed police forced residents out of their homes and loaded their belongings onto government trucks. [111], Chinese South Africans – who were descendants of migrant workers who came to work in the gold mines around Johannesburg in the late 19th century – were initially either classified as "Coloured" or "Other Asian" and were subject to numerous forms of discrimination and restriction. [211] Many South Africans attended schools in Nigeria,[212] and Nelson Mandela acknowledged the role of Nigeria in the struggle against apartheid on several occasions.[213]. Davies, Rob, Dan O'Meara and Sipho Dlamini. [50] This caused difficulty, especially for Coloured people, separating their families when members were allocated different races. Suppression of Communism Act (1950) Native Laws Amendment Act † (1952) A 2016 study in the Journal of Politics suggests that disenfranchisement in South Africa had a significant negative impact on basic service delivery to the disenfranchised.[68]. Each black homeland controlled its own education, health and police systems. Bantu Authorities Act (1951) [49] Official teams or boards were established to come to a conclusion on those people whose race was unclear. [52] Until then, most settlements had people of different races living side by side. [178] For example, South Africa's activities in Angola, initially limited to containing PLAN, later escalated to direct involvement in the Angolan Civil War. N. pag. Four of the homelands were declared independent by the South African government: Transkei in 1976, Bophuthatswana in 1977, Venda in 1979, and Ciskei in 1981 (known as the TBVC states). Black homelands were declared nation-states and pass laws were abolished. Such groups were split into 13 nations or racial federations. Indemnity Act (1961) That being said, I understand your ethical reserve on this issue. Smuts' reluctance to consider South African foreign policy against the mounting tensions of the Cold War also stirred up discontent, while the nationalists promised to purge the state and public service of communist sympathisers. They were classified as part of the Coloured racial group. [124][125][126] In the following years several student organisations were formed to protest against apartheid, and these organisations were central to urban school boycotts in 1980 and 1983 and rural boycotts in 1985 and 1986. Thabo Mbeki and de Klerk were made deputy presidents. Television was not introduced until 1976 because the government viewed English programming as a threat to the Afrikaans language. nation building in the new South Africa: the covenant and the battle of Blood/Ncome River, Joseba Zulaika and William Douglass, "Terror and Taboo" (Routledge, 1996), p. 12. Multiracial sport, between teams with players of different races, remained outlawed; multinational sport, however, was now acceptable: international sides would not be subject to South Africa's racial stipulations. The Immorality Amendment Act 21 of 1950 (as amended in 1957 by Act 23) forbade "unlawful racial intercourse" and "any immoral or indecent act" between a white and a black, Indian or Coloured person. [178], As it became clearer that full-scale conventional operations could not effectively fulfill the requirements of a regional counter-insurgency effort, South Africa turned to a number of alternative methods. Churches and church groups also emerged as pivotal points of resistance. The UDF, coupled with the protection of the church, accordingly permitted a major role for Archbishop Desmond Tutu, who served both as a prominent domestic voice and international spokesperson denouncing apartheid and urging the creation of a shared nonracial state.[128]. During this time, F. W. de Klerk served as chairman to the provincial National Party, which was in favour of the Apartheid regime. Black people were not allowed to run businesses or professional practices in areas designated as "white South Africa" unless they had a permit – such being granted only exceptionally. They played an important role in the anti-apartheid movement: for example the African Political Organization established in 1902 had an exclusively Coloured membership. [citation needed] Nevertheless, by 1948 it remained apparent that there were gaps in the social structure, whether legislated or otherwise, concerning the rights and opportunities of nonwhites. Conclusion. Interest was expressed in rescinding the law against interracial marriage and also rescinding the law against sexual relations between different races, which was under ridicule abroad. [115], Alongside apartheid, the National Party implemented a programme of social conservatism. The Coloured group included people regarded as being of mixed descent, including of Bantu, Khoisan, European and Malay ancestry. [43], Afrikaner nationalists proclaimed that they offered the voters a new policy to ensure continued white domination. Between 1986–88, some petty apartheid laws were repealed, along with the pass laws. The government could implement curfews controlling the movement of people. Separate Representation of Voters Act (1951) National Key Points Act (1980) Do not type comments in all capital letters, or in all lower case letters, or using abbreviated text. The aim was to ensure a demographic majority of white people within South Africa by having all ten Bantustans achieve full independence. Similarly, in Natal, the Natal Legislative Assembly Bill of 1894 deprived Indians of the right to vote. One of the biggest long-term effects on Indians was the distrust of white South Africans. Mandela was moved to a four-bedroom house of his own, with a swimming pool and shaded by fir trees, on a prison farm just outside of Cape Town.
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